In 1939, Subhash Chandra Bose (famously known as Netaji), after resigning from the post of Congress President over ideological differences with Mahatma Gandhi and his loyalist supporters in Congress, formed the All-India Forward Bloc, which also did not give the result he expected.

In 1940, he was arrested for organising a mass protest in Calcutta for the removal of the “Holwell Monument”, which stood in memoriam of those who died in the Black Hole Tragedy. After a seven-day hunger strike in prison, he was released and placed under house arrest, from where he escaped disguised as a Pathan on 17 January 1941. He made his way through Afghanistan to the Soviet Union and then to Berlin through Rome.

In Germany, Netaji tried to persuade Adolf Hitler to help the cause of India’s independence through an armed revolt. Netaji was attached to the Nazi Special Bureau for India and from there he started broadcasting the Azad Hind Radio. He also founded the Free India Centre in Berlin and created the Indian Legion (consisting of 4,500 soldiers) out of Indian Prisoners of War captured from North Africa.

In no time, Bose realised that the Germans were in no mood to help India in any substantive manner, as they were only using him and his cause as a propaganda tool against Britain. Bose saw benefit in moving out of Europe and went to Japan by submarine, where the Japanese had captured Singapore along with 45,000 soldiers. Rash Behari Bose, along with Mohan Singh and with Japanese help, raised the Indian National Army (INA) consisting of Indian PoWs.

By this time, Rash Behari Bose was quite old and not in good health to provide the leadership the INA needed. As Netaji headed to Asia, he took control of the INA and became the head of the Provincial Government of Azad Hind. He was also the de jure in charge of the liberated areas of India such as the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Though Netaji became the de jure authority, the de facto power remained with the Japanese army and administration, and on the ground there were no major changes.

Netaji was the first Prime Minister of India as he headed a government that was recognised by other governments including Japan, Germany, Italy, Thailand and their allies. He commanded an army, issued his own currency and stamps, and governed liberated territory.

As Japan lost the war to the US, the INA was forced to surrender in August 1945. INA officers were marched back to India and put on a public trial in the Red Fort, famously known as the Red Fort Trial. This was a strategic mistake by the British: during the war, information about Netaji and the INA had been tightly controlled, and most Indians were unaware of their struggle against the British Empire. By putting INA officers on public trial, the general public learned about them and Netaji.

During the INA trial, it is said that the old baoli (step-well) in the Red Fort was used as a prison. It is said that Colonel SN Khan, PK Sahgal and GS Dhillon were kept here, while other INA veterans were held in the nearby fortress of Salimgarh.

The INA trial created such a sensation across India that unrest began to grow among the masses. This momentum led to open revolt by the public along with the Royal Indian Navy. Around 20,000 naval personnel with about 80 ships took control of the Bombay harbour. They raised the flag of freedom and pulled down the British flag. Similar revolts occurred at Karachi, Kolkata and other places. When the Royal Indian Air Force were asked to bomb them, they refused to act against fellow Indians. Discontent spread across the armed forces.

Indian newspaper headlines on 23 February 1946 included:

• “Indian Sailor in Revolt”
• “Firing on strikers at Karachi”
• “Indians retaliate with naval guns”
• “Grave turn in R.I.N. men’s strike in Bombay”

At this stage, the British realised they could no longer control India.

During this revolt, the Cabinet Commission on India’s Freedom was set up. A year later, on 15 August 1947, India became free.

History and its Relevance in Contemporary World

What role does history play in a person’s life on a day-to-day basis? If we see history through the prism of utilitarianism, we may believe it has little significance in contemporary life. But what is history? According to Herodotus, history is the systematic study and documentation of the human past. All documented past events fall within its scope. Because of this vast scope, politics, economy, culture, religion, architecture, and astronomy can all be studied through a historical perspective.

History helps answer questions such as: Where do we come from? Who are we? How did we arrive here? These questions form the basis of identity. Identity is rooted in the past and cannot be created out of nothing. Contemporary issues such as reservation policies, the Two-Nation Theory and the partition of India, and the Aryan Invasion Theory are debated using historical interpretations.

Indian politics touches individuals directly or through policy. Issues of caste, language, religion, region, and race all have historical roots and shape identity. Identity is a person’s unique characteristics, affiliations, and social roles. It remains constant despite societal changes and drives social phenomena. Thus, identity originates in history.

Every social norm or reform has a historical context. When legitimate history is absent, fictional history is sometimes created to justify present changes. European colonizers justified imperial rule using ideas such as racial superiority and the “White Man’s Burden.” Such historical framing makes change appear as a continuation of the past.

Indian thinkers like Swami Vivekananda and Sri Aurobindo countered colonial myths by presenting India as an ancient, diverse, and thriving civilization. This restored confidence and supported resistance to British rule.

Historical narratives have justified events such as the partition of India and theories of regional or racial divisions. Even the Social Contract Theory, associated with thinkers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Thomas Hobbes, and John Locke, uses historical reasoning to justify the authority of the state.

History also shapes economic structures. Occupational patterns in India reflect historical experience: north-western regions contributed heavily to the army due to repeated invasions through the Khyber Pass, while Gujarat developed strong trade traditions dating back to ancient maritime commerce from Lothal.

Economic systems evolved historically from feudalism to mercantilism, colonial expansion, capitalism, and eventually welfare state models. Marx’s theory of communism is rooted in historical materialism and the idea of class struggle.

Culture, like economy, is influenced by geography but evolves through historical events. Language, literature, dress, food habits, and social customs are products of historical development.

People who do not know their history are rootless. Understanding history helps society interpret the present and navigate the future. As Carl Sagan said, “You have to know the past to understand the present.” By studying past beliefs, values, and social structures, we better understand present complexities and determine future direction.

The Earth in the Altars:
Ecological Consciousness in Bihari Weddings and Literature

In the modern discourse on sustainability, we often look toward technology for solutions. However, the traditional wedding rituals of Bihar and the literature reflecting them offer an ancient blueprint for “living with the land.”

1. The Ritual of Mati-Kor: An Ode to the Soil

Every traditional Bihari wedding begins with Mati-Kor (digging the earth). Women of the family gather to dig soil from a local field or pond bank while singing folk songs. This soil is used to build the Marwa (wedding altar).

Origin:
Historically, this ritual traces back to the ancient agrarian societies of the Gangetic plains. In Vedic texts, the Earth is referred to as Prithvi Sukta, the mother of all.

Significance:
It serves as a Bhoomi Pujan (land worship). Before a new family unit is created, permission is sought from the Earth. Mud represented the dynamic, living cycle of nature.

Historical Context:
In the Ramayana, Sita (whose name means “furrow”) was found in the earth. The Mati-Kor ritual in Mithila honors this “Daughter of the Soil” heritage.

2. Nature as a Witness: The Marwa and Bamboo

Traditional Bihari wedding structures use bamboo shoots and mango leaves instead of modern synthetic materials.

Origin:
The use of bamboo and banana stalks is rooted in the “Vanaspati” (Lord of the Forest) tradition of the Atharva Veda.

Historical Significance:
Bamboo symbolizes growth and resilience. These structures were biodegradable and returned to the earth, ensuring a zero-waste celebration.

Mango leaves and Kusha grass act as natural purifiers and leave no environmental footprint.

The Kohbar: A Visual Ecosystem

The Kohbar Ghar (nuptial chamber) features ecological art, often showing intertwined vines.

Historical Origin:
Legend says King Janak commissioned Kohbar paintings for the wedding of Rama and Sita.

Eco-Significance:
Traditionally painted with rice paste and natural colors.

Symbolism:

• Fish — abundance in wetlands
• Lotus — reproductive power of water
• Sun & Moon — eternal witnesses of the union

3. Ecological Consciousness in Literature

Novels from Bihar preserve these rituals and environmental links.

A. Maila Anchal — Phanishwar Nath Renu

• Shows human life inseparable from local ecology.
• The Kamla River is depicted as a mother figure.
• Wedding rituals reflect reverence for soil, seasons, and fertility.
• Village deities are tied to groves and trees.
• Environment is both provider and judge.

B. Usha Kiran Khan’s Maithili Works

• Describes Saurath Sabha, a centuries-old gathering under sacred trees where marriages were arranged.
• Madhubani art used in weddings records regional plant life through natural dyes.

The Future of a “Green” Ancestry

Ecological consciousness in Bihari wedding rituals is not a relic of the past but a profound ethno-ecological philosophy. Rituals like Mati-Kor and Kohbar art show a culture that defines sanctity through closeness to nature.

Unity in diversity is one of the most important aspects of Indian population. Tribal living portrays a well-balanced lifestyle where they live in harmony and unanimity with nature. They are very close to mountains, hills, forests, rivers, etc.

The tribals are also called Adivasi. The term “Adivasi” comes from the Hindi word “adi” meaning ‘from the beginning’ and “vasi” means ‘inhabitant’. The tribals are considered as the original inhabitants of the land.

Warm hospitality, simple ways of living and sincere judgements of the opinions are the traits of the tribal community. The trust in their traditions and the confidence to practice that in this era of modernity and globalization shows the strength of their cultural roots and the richness of their customs and traditions. The richness of their culture can be projected through the diversity it possess in its traditional art forms, paintings, dance forms, folk songs, food, etc.

The “Warli” painting, which is essentially triangular or rectangular human and animal figures with stick like limbs and round heads, originated in the terrain of Sahyadri Hills by Warli tribe.

Bhil is one of the largest tribes of India. “Garvi” is an ancient ritual performed by the Bhil community of Rajasthan and Gujarat. It is performed in the form of act and dance to seek blessings from Lord Shiva and goddess Parvati to get a life free from misery and pain. The origin of “Garvi” is based on the legend of the demon Varkasur or Bhasmasur, when Vishnu, the preserver had succeeded in protecting Shiva by turning Bhasmasur into ashes. Ghoomar, the folk dance of Rajasthan has also come from the Bhil tribe.

The tribal women witness a lot of respect and liberty. They enjoy very high status in their society. The women of Bhil tribe practice polygamy where a woman is allowed to remarry after her first marriage. During marriages, it is the men who have to pay a dowry (few goats) to be able to marry an eligible woman.

Their faith depends on memory and oral tradition rather than on sacred literature. They believe in spirits and some form of life after death. The tribals are dependent on their own genius for development of their ideas and practices.

In folk religion, the tribals usually worship nature including rivers, trees, earth, rain, mountains, etc. Along with folk religion, the tribals practice the folk worship of their folk gods. Their folk gods are separate from mainstream religion and do not ascribe to any major religion. Folk goddesses are called ‘Amma’ or ‘Ajji’ and folk gods are called ‘Appa’ or ‘Ayya’. Folk gods have a matriarchal structure where female goddesses are prominent. The goddesses usually do not have husbands but they have brothers and male subordinates. Some major folk goddesses and gods are ‘Fertility Goddess’, ‘Water Goddess’, ‘Warrior God’ and ‘Shaivite God’.

Symbolism is an important part of tribal culture. Various elements are used to represent beliefs, feelings, pride, identity, etc. Symbolism is an ancient cultural practice which is still very important for the people. Various traditional symbolic elements and designs were used, which are now found only in literature, art, sculpture, architecture or used occasionally for religious purposes. Typical designs of animals and birds were used for symbolising various purposes and occasions.

The traditional eating food of tribals includes fish, crabs, snail, ants, wild fruits and roots, etc. Bamboo and other tree-based ethnic and fermented food is quite popular among North-Eastern tribes. The eating habits of tribals are connected to their socio-cultural life and health.

Tribal culture is an example of inimitability, equality and simplicity. Most tribes have their own way of living based on their own genius. Except for a few like Sentinelese, they are sociable, hospitable and fun loving. Tribal life penetrates many aspects of culture and civilization. Indian tribal culture speaks about the diversity of the country.